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Funding from the National institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering and the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research supported this work.

It was created as part of a collaboration between historians from the University of Glasgow and craniofacial experts from Liverpool John Moores University.

Some groupings sort of make sense, such as merging neurological, eye, and dental and craniofacial research institutes into a single neuroscience and brain research institute.

"In reconstructive surgery, particularly for craniofacial defects, induced bone growth is crucial for restoring both function and appearance, vital for essential functions like chewing, breathing and speaking," he said.

The researchers found that when neural crest cells are exposed to higher-than-usual levels of pressure, key cell signalling pathways are impeded, and the risk of craniofacial malformations significantly increases.