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And it shows that “understanding the detailed mechanisms at the atomic and molecular level should, in the future, help researchers find solutions in emerging biomedical applications—including smart drug delivery, nuclear magnetic imaging and phototherapy.”

What proved more difficult to suppress was her suspicion that Adderall was blunting her intelligence: Was the “smart drug” making her stupid?

In 2017, 30 percent of Americans said they had used “smart drug” supplements, known as nootropics, at least once that year, even if studies repeatedly demonstrate that they have a negligible effect on intellect.

However, it is also in now widespread use as a "smart drug" - to enhance the concentration of people without ADHD.

A year ago, he began seeing Vinh Ngo, a San Francisco doctor who weaned him off Adderall and suggested that he use hormones and a “smart drug” called piracetam that has been embraced by the Silicon Valley tech world and others for its promise of greater focus and productivity.