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Dr Sarah Jackson, who works for the UCL Tobacco and Alcohol Research Group and is the lead author of the survey, tells the BBC she thinks "more people are turning to refillable, reusable devices" rather than stopping vaping altogether.

The UCL study looked at survey data on vaping habits in England, Wales and Scotland both before and after the ban was announced.

Jennie Golding, a co-author of the report from the Institute of Education at UCL, believes issues around confidence and a sense of belonging could be possible reasons why girls' performance has suffered.

In September 2019, he then moved to London to study a Masters in mechanical engineering at UCL, but returned to China the following year during the Covid-19 pandemic.

UCL said Zou was suspended on 27 January 2024 and he stopped studying there "as soon we were informed about the allegations".