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The electromagnetic force is conveyed by the photon, the strong force by the gluon, and the weak force by particles called the W boson and Z boson.

For example, the exchanged photon can morph into an electron-positron pair and back into a photon, or one electron can emit and reabsorb a particle called a Z boson.

It is a particle called the Z′ boson because of its similarity with the Z boson, which carries the ‘weak force’ responsible for nuclear decay.

He adds that both leptoquarks and the Z′ boson have an advantage: they still have not been completely ruled out by the LHC, but the machine should ultimately see them if they exist.

Models that introduce new particles such as the Z' boson and the leptoquark will be updated in light of the new information.